Ratio Analysis : Accounting Ratios Notes for CBSE Class 12 ACCOUNTS NOTES, BBA, B.Com, MBA, CA CPT

Ratio Analysis Ratio means comparison of quantitative relationship between two common variables that expresses how much bigger one is than the other. Accounting ratio analysis is a scientific and effective tool of evaluating operating and financial position of a company by determining and interpreting quantitative relationship among variables of financial statement. Types of Accounting Ratio Broadly Accounting ratio has been classified into four categories: 1.      Liquidity ratio These ratios are calculated to measure the firm’s ability to meet short term obligations. 2.      Solvency ratio It is calculated to assess long term financial position of the company and ability to pay off long term obligations. 3.      Turnover or Activity ratio These ratios help to assess how efficiently a company is utilizing its resources. 4.      Profitability ratio These ratios help to assess business ability to generate profit out of sales and expenses incurred on generation sales.

Types of Liquidity ratio                    I.            Current ratio = Current Asset ÷ Current Liability (2:1 is ideal)                 II.            Liquid ratio/ Quick ratio/ Acid Test Ratio = Liquid or quick asset ÷ Current Liability (1:1 is ideal) Note: Current Asset = Current Investment + Inventories (excluding spares & loose tools)+Net Trade receivables (Trade Receivable -  Provision for doubtful debts and discount on debtors) +Cash & Cash equivalent+Short term loans & advances+Other current assets such as Prepaid expenses, Accrued income, Interest receivable, advance tax Current liability = Short term borrowing +Trade payables+Short term provisions+Other current liability such as Outstanding expense, Income received in advance. Liquid Asset = Current asset – Inventory – Prepaid expense Working Capital = Current Asset – Current Liabilty

Types of Solvency ratios        I.            Debt to Equity Ratio = Long term Debt or Non Current liability ÷ Equity or Shareholders’ fund     II.            Total asset to debt ratio = Total asset ÷ Non Current liability or Long term debt  III.            Proprietary ratio = Shareholders’ fund or proprietors’ fund ÷ Total asset  IV.            Interest Coverage ratio = Earning or Profit before interest and tax ( EBIT or PBIT) ÷ Interest on long term Debt (NCL)* Note: Non Current liability (NCL) or Long term debt = Long term borrowing such as Debentures, Long term loans + Deferred tax liability + Long term provisions such as Long Term Provision for Gratuity, Leave Encashment, Provision workmen compensation towards VRS etc + Other long term liabilities Or NCL = Total asset (Excluding Non Trade Investment) – Shareholders’ fund – Current liability Or NCL = Capital Employed – Shareholders’ Fund Capital Employed = NCL + Shareholders’ Fund Or Capital Employed = Total Asset(Excluding Non Trade Investment) – Current Liability Noncurrent asset (NCA) =  Tangible asset less depreciation+ Intangible asset less amortization or Depreciation + Capital work in progress + Non Current Investment (Excluding Non Trade Investment) + Long term Loans & Advances + Deferred Tax Asset  + Intangible Assets under Development + Other Non current Asset Total Asset = Non Current Asset (NCA) + Current Asset Here in Current Asset, we include Spares & Loose tools. Net Asset or Shareholders’ fund (SHF) Or Proprietors’ Fund = Share capital + Reserve & Surplus + Money received against share warrant + Share application pending allotment Or SHF = Total asset – NCL ­­– Current liability (CL) Or SHF = NCA + Working capital – NCL Net Asset Or SHF = Total Asset – Total Liability Working Capital = Current Asset – Current Liability Note: Always remember, Non Trade Investment is not included while Calculating Total Asset of a Company. Depreciation or Amortization is subtracted From Tangible Asset & Intangible asset to calculate Total Asset.

EBIT / PBIT calculation:

Two ways to derive EBIT from question point of view
Method I	Method II
Earning / Profit before Interest and tax (EBIT) Less: interest on long term debt (debentures & loans) Add: Interest on Non Current Investment	Profit after tax Add: tax (tax rate ÷ 100 × Profit or earning before tax)
Earning or profit before tax (EBT or PBT) Less: tax (tax rate ÷ 100 × Profit or earning before tax	Earning or profit before tax (EBT or PBT) Add: interest on long term debt (debentures & loans) Less: Interest on Non Current Investment
Profit after tax	Earning / Profit before Interest and tax (EBIT)

Types of Activity Ratio / Turnover Ratio        I.            Inventory turnover ratio (ITR) = Cost of Revenue from operations (CORFO) or cost of goods sold (COGS) ÷ Average inventory ·         Inventory conversion period = 365 days / 52 weeks / 12 months ÷ ITR ·         Average Inventory = (Opening inventory + Closing inventory) ÷2 Inventory includes Raw materials, Work in progress (WIP), Finished goods, Stock in trade (stores, spares and loose tools are excluded). If Cost of revenue from operations is not given in the question, we can take Revenue from operations in formula.     II.            Trade receivable Turnover ratio (TRTR) = Credit revenue from operations or credit sales ÷ average trade receivable ·         Trade receivable average collection period or Trade receivable velocity = (365 /52/12) ÷ TRTR ·         Average Trade Receivable = (Opening trade receivable + Closing trade receivable) ÷ 2 Trade receivable includes debtors, sundry debtors, bill receivable, and account receivable. If credit revenue from operations is not given in the question, we can take revenue from operations in the formula. Note: We do not subtract provision for doubtful debts while calculating average trade receivable because the motive is to calculate number of days money will be stuck in trade receivable rather than realizable value of trade receivable.  III.            Trade Payable turnover ratio (TPTR) = Net credit Purchase ÷ Average trade payable ·         Trade payable average payment period or Trade payable velocity = (365/52/12) ÷TPTR Trade payable includes creditors, sundry creditors, bill payable and account payable Note: We do not subtract provision for discount on creditor while calculating average trade payable.  IV.            Working Capital Turnover ratio = Revenue from operations or sales ÷ Working capital When revenue from operations is not given in the question, we can take cost of revenue from operations in the formula. Note: Answers of Turnover Ratio are written as……..Times. For example If answer for Debtor Turnover ratio came 4, it will be written as 4 Times.

Types of Profitability ratio        I.            Gross profit / margin ratio (GP ratio) = (Gross profit ÷ Net Sales or Net Revenue from operations) × 100     II.            Operation ratio = (Operating cost ÷ Net Revenue from operations) × 100  III.            Operating profit ratio = (Operating profit ÷ Net Revenue from operations) ×100  IV.            Operation ratio + Operating profit ratio = 1     V.            Net profit ratio = (Net profit after tax ÷ Net revenue from operations) × 100  VI.            Return on Investment or capital employed = Earnings before interest, tax and dividend ÷ Capital employed VII.            Return on shareholders’ fund or Return on net worth  =  Net profit after tax ÷ Shareholders’ fund VIII.            Return on Common equity share = (Net profit after tax – Preference dividend) ÷ Shareholders’ fund excluding Preference share *While calculating change in inventory, exclude spare parts and loose tools. Inventory includes raw materials, work in progress and finished goods. ** Direct expenses includes Wages, Power & fuel, Carriage inward, Cartage inward, Expense on purchase, Freight inward, Octroi, Manufacturing expenses, Power & fuel etc.

Notes: Gross Profit = Net Revenue from operations – Cost of revenue from operations Net Revenue from operations or net sales = Revenue from operations – Revenue return  Or Net Revenue from operations or net sales = Sales – Sales return Cost of revenue from operations or cost of goods sold = Opening inventory + Net Purchase + Direct expenses – Closing inventory = Cost of material consumed + Purchase of stock in trade + Change in inventory of stock in trade, Work in progress, Finished goods + Direct expenses = Net revenue from operations – Gross Profit Net purchase = Purchase – Purchase return Note: If instead of change in inventory decrease or increase in inventory is given; Add decrease in inventory (Decrease in inventory means difference between opening inventory and closing inventory is positive value, so we add it. Further, it means opening inventory value is greater than closing inventory value.) Subtract increase in inventory in the above formula (Increase in inventory means difference between opening inventory and closing inventory is negative value, so we add it. Further, it means opening inventory value is smaller than closing inventory value.) Remember when we are including increase or decrease in inventory in formula, we do not write change in inventory even it is given in the question. Operating Cost = operating Expenses + Cost of Revenue from operations Operating Expenses = Employee benefit expenses + Depreciation & amortization + other expenses excluding non operating expenses Or Operating expenses = Office & administration expenses + Selling & Distribution Expenses + Employee Benefit expenses + Depreciation & amortization expenses Other expenses = Office & administration expenses + Selling & Distribution Expenses Operating Profit = Net revenue from operations + other operating income – Operating Cost Or Operating Profit = Gross Profit + other operating income – Operating Expenses Or Operating Profit = Net revenue from operations + other operating income – Cost of Revenue from operations – Operating expenses. Or Operating Profit = Net Profit Before tax – Non operating income + Non operating expenses Or Operating Profit = Net Profit after tax + Corporate tax – Non operating income + Non operating expenses Net profit after Tax = Net revenue from operations – Cost of revenue from operations – Operating expenses – Non operating Expenses + non Operating Income – Corporate tax. Or Net profit after Tax = Net revenue from operations – Operating cost – Non operating Expenses + non Operating Income – Corporate tax. Or Net profit after Tax = Gross Profit – Operating expenses – Non operating Expenses + non Operating Income – Corporate tax. Or Net profit after Tax = Operating Profit – Non operating Expenses + non Operating Income – Corporate tax. Note: Cost of revenue from operations and cost of goods sold is same Net revenue from operation and net sales is same. Revenue from operation or sales = Cash revenue from operation + Credit revenue from operations Or Revenue from operation or sales = Cash sales + Credit sales

Income statement Format to understand Profitability Ratios  formula	Amount	Amount
A. Net Revenue from operations ( revenue from operations – revenue return)  or (sales – sales return)
B. cost of revenue from operations: Change in inventory (Opening inventory – closing inventory )* Net purchase (Purchase – Purchase return) Direct expenses**
C. Gross Profit (A - B)
D. operating Expense Office & administration expenses Selling & Distribution expenses Employee benefit expenses Depreciation & amortization expenses
E. Other operating income Bad debts recovered
F.  Operating Profit (C- D + E)
G. Non operating expenses Interest on loans & advances, debentures Loss on sale of asset Abnormal losses such as loss by fire
H. Non operating Income Interest received Rent received Gain on sale of asset dividend received other non operating income
I. Net Profit before tax (F – G + H)
Less : Income tax paid / provision for income tax
J .Net profit after tax
Less : Preference Dividend
K. Earnings available for Shareholders

Cash Flow statement Format & Adjustment entries for CBSE Class 12 ACCOUNTS NOTES, BBA, B.Com, MBA, CA, CS & CMA

Cash Flow Statement

AS- 3 Cash Flow Statement ·         A statement that shows flow of cash and cash equivalents of a particular period of time. It is a summary of receipts and payment of cash for a particular period of time. It also explains reasons for the changes in cash position of the firm. ·         Cash flow statement is generally prepared for one financial year (April to March). ·         Cash means cash in hand and cash at bank /demand deposits with banks. ·         Cash equivalent is a highly liquid investment whose maturity period is three months or less. It is subject to a minimal risk of a change in value. ·         Cash equivalent includes Marketable securities / short term investment, short term deposits in banks, cheques and drafts on hand, certificate of deposits. Note - Until and unless, question specifies, short term investment is considered as marketable securities. Otherwise it will be taken as current asset while solving question. ·         Cash Flow means inflow and outflow of cash and cash equivalents. ·         Inflow – Any transaction that increases cash and cash equivalent of a company Example –rent received cash revenue from operations, sale of investment etc. ·         Outflow – any transaction that decrease inflow and outflow of a company. Example – repayment of loans and advances, payment to creditors, operating expenses paid etc. AS -3 requires preparation of cash flow statement under three heads: ·         Cash Flow from Operating Activity   It includes cash flows from the principal revenue generation activities of an organisation. ·         Cash flow from investing Activity It includes cash flows from sale and purchase of noncurrent assets, investments (which are not included in cash equivalent) and earning generated on those investments. ·         Cash flow from financing Activity It includes cash flow resulting out of change in shareholders’ fund and noncurrent liability of an organisation (raising and repaying finance of an organisation). Note - We will see the examples of all three activities in CFS format.*

Cash Flow Statement Format

Cash Flow Statement (As per revised AS 3) For the year ended………..	Rs.	Rs.
Net Profit as per Profit and Loss A/c (C.Y. – P.Y.) (given in notes to accounts) Add: ·         Transfer to general reserve (C.Y. – P.Y.) ·         Proposed dividend (C.Y.) ·         Interim dividend/ final dividend paid during the year(Given in additional information) ·         Provision for tax (C.Y., if no additional information regarding tax is given in the question) ·         Any other provisions* ·         Any expenses written off* ·         Extraordinary items, if any, debited to P &L A/c Less : ·         Extraordinary Items, if any, credited to P & L A/c ·         Refund of Tax credited to Profit and Loss A/c
A. Net profit before taxation and Extra ordinary items Adjustment for Non-Cash and Non-Operating Items  Add : ·         Depreciation ·         Discount on issue of shares and debentures written off ·         Interest paid on long term & short term borrowings, debentures, bank overdraft /cash credit ·         Loss on sale of fixed assets and investment ·         Patent, copyright, trademark, goodwill and other non tangible assets written off (P.Y. – C.Y.) ·         Preliminary expenses written off (P.Y. – C.Y.) ·         Premium paid on redemption of Preference shares / debentures Less : ·         Interest received ·         Dividend income received ·         Rental income received ·         Profit/ gain on sale of fixed asset & Investment ·
B. Operating profits before working capital changes Add: ·         Decrease in current assets and increase in current liabilities Less : ·         Increase in current assets and decrease in current liabilities
C. Cash generated from operations Less : Net Income tax paid (Income tax paid  - tax refund)
D. Cash flow before extraordinary items (+/-)Adjusted extraordinary items (eg. subtract compensation paid on voluntary retirement scheme)
I. Cash flow from Operating Activity / Cash used in operating activity
Cash Flow from investing Activity Add : ·         Sale of fixed assets ·         Sale of non current investments ·         Sale of intangible assets such as goodwill, patent, copyright, trademark ·         Interest received ·         dividend received ·         Rent received Less : ·         Purchase of fixed assets ·         Purchase of non current investment ·         Purchase of intangible assets such as goodwill, patent copyright, trademark (P.Y. -C.Y.) ·         Capital gain tax paid on sale of fixed asset or non current investment Adjust Extraordinary items (+/–) (eg. Add insurance claim on fixed asset lost due to fire or natural calamities)
II. Cash flow from (or used in) Investing activities
Cash flows from financing activities Add : ·         Proceeds from issue of equity shares, preference Shares and debentures ·         Proceeds from other long term borrowings, Bank overdraft and short term loans and advances Less : ·         Final dividend/ Interim dividend paid (given in additional information) ·         Proposed dividend (P.Y.) – dividend payable ·         Interest on debentures and loans paid ·         Repayment of loans and advances, Bank overdraft ·         Redemption of debentures, preference shares ·         Premium paid on redemption of debentures and preference shares paid ·         Payment of equity Share, Preference share, debenture issue expenses ·         Dividend distribution tax paid Adjust extraordinary items (+/–) (eg. payment of buyback of share will be subtracted)
III. Net cash from (or used in) financing activities
Net increase/Decrease in cash and cash equivalent (I + II +III) Add : cash and cash equivalents in the beginning of the year ·         cash in hand ·         cash at bank ·         short term deposit ·         Marketable securities ·         Current Investment ·         Cheques and Drafts in hand
cash and cash equivalents in the end of the year Add : ·         Cash in hand ·         Cash at Bank ·         Short term deposits ·         Marketable securities ·         Current Investment ·         Cheques and Drafts in hand

Items not accounted in CFS Following are some of the major items which are not accounted in CFS because it does not involve inflow or outflow of Cash: ·         Issue of Equity Shares, Preference Shares or debentures other than cash. Example - Issue of shares to promoters, issue of shares to creditors to pay off its liability, purchase of fixed asset by issuing shares or debentures to vendors, issue of bonus shares etc. ·         Inflow and outflow between components of cash and cash equivalent. Example – Cash withdrawn from bank for business use, cash deposited into bank, cash realized from cheque deposited into bank, purchase or sale of marketable securities/ current investment etc.

Adjustment entries related to Cash Flow Statement: 1. Proposed Dividend Add back to net profit in operating Activity (C.Y. value) Subtract in financing activity ( Proposed dividend (P.Y. value) – Dividend Payable) 2. Interim Dividend / final dividend paid Add to net profit in operating activity Subtract in financing activity 3. Provision for Income Tax (This rule will not apply if additional information regarding provision for tax made or income tax paid is given as additional information in the question.) Add to net profit in operating activity (C.Y. value) Subtract cash generated from operations in operating activity (P.Y. value) 4. When additional information regarding Provision for tax made or income tax paid is given in the question, we prepare provision for tax A/C. Always remember any of the two will be given in the question either provision for tax made during the year or income tax paid during the year. For instance provision for income tax made is given as additional information then income tax paid will become balancing figure and vice versa. Accounting treatment will change here. Provision for income tax made during the year will be added to net profit in operating activity. Income tax paid will be subtracted from cash generated from operations in operating activity. Rule given in adjustment entry 3 will not apply. Provision for tax A/C Particulars Amount Particulars Amount To Bank A/c (Income tax paid) By Balance B/D (P.Y. value) To Balance C/D (C.Y. value) By P&L Appropriation A/C (Provision for tax made during the year 5. Preparation of Fixed Asset A/C on original cost basis or when provision for depreciation A/C or accumulated Depreciation A/C is maintained: In this case, we prepare fixed asset A/C and Provision for Depreciation A/C. Fixed Asset A/C Particulars Amount Particulars Amount To Balance B/D (P.Y. value) By Bank A/C (Sale of Fixed asset) To gain on sale of fixed asset A/C* By loss on sale of fixed asset A/C* To Bank A/C (Purchase of fixed Asset) (balancing figure) By provision for depreciation / accumulated depreciation A/C (accumulated depreciation on asset sold) By Balance C/D (C.Y. value) Provision for Depreciation A/c or Accumulated Depreciation A/C Particulars Amount Particulars Amount To Fixed asset A/C (accumulated depreciation on asset sold) By Balance B/D (P.Y. value) By Balance C/D (C.Y. value) By Depreciation A/c (balancing figure) Adjustments related to various items of above two accounts prepared are: ·         Gain on sale of fixed Asset – Subtract in operating activity ·         Loss on sale of fixed Asset – Add to operating Activity ·         Purchase of fixed Asset – Subtract in Investing Activity ·         Sale of fixed asset – Add to investing Activity ·         Depreciation – Add to operating Activity *There can be either gain or loss on sale of fixed asset. Both items cannot come together. 6. Preparation of Fixed Asset A/C on written down value Basis that is when provision for depreciation A/C is not maintained: In this case, only fixed Asset A/c is prepared. Noncurrent Investment A/C and Intangible asset A/C are similar to Fixed Asset A/C prepared below. The only difference is that in Non current investment A/c, there will be no depreciation A/C. Fixed Asset A/C / Intangible asset A/C Particulars Amount Particulars Amount To Balance B/D (P.Y. value) By Bank A/C (Sale of Fixed asset) To gain on sale of fixed asset A/C* By loss on sale of fixed asset A/C* To Bank A/C (Purchase of fixed Asset)* *(balancing figure) By depreciation A/C / amortization A/C (balancing figure)** By Balance C/D (C.Y. value) Adjustments related to various items of above account prepared are: ·         Gain on sale of fixed Asset – Subtract in operating activity ·         Loss on sale of fixed Asset – Add to operating Activity ·         Purchase of fixed Asset – Subtract in Investing Activity ·         Sale of fixed asset – Add to investing Activity ·         Depreciation – Add to operating Activity *There can be either gain or loss on sale of fixed asset. Both items cannot come together. ** Either Purchase of fixed asset/ intangible asset or depreciation/amortization will be balancing figure as per the information given in the question. Non Current Investment A/C Particulars Amount Particulars Amount To Balance B/D (P.Y. value) By Bank A/C (Sale of noncurrent investment) To gain on sale of noncurrent investment By loss on sale of noncurrent investment To Bank A/C (Purchase of noncurrent investment) (balancing figure) By Balance C/D (C.Y. value)